How does the law apply to gentiles?

The question of how the law (Torah) of the Bible, particularly the Old Testament, should be applied to non-Jews, or Gentiles, has been a highly significant and complex point of debate throughout Christian theological history. This is not merely an academic curiosity but a practical issue touching upon the essence of salvation, the identity of the church, and the foundation of Christian ethics. How one understands the Apostle Paul’s letters, in particular, greatly influences the approach to this issue. The "New Perspective on Paul" (NPP) has significantly impacted Pauline studies over the past few decades, offering a fresh viewpoint on this debate.¹ This analysis aims to explore the issue of applying the law to Gentiles in depth, based on biblical texts and theological interpretation, primarily focusing on the insights of the NPP.

Clarifying the meaning of "law," the core of this discussion, is crucial first. The Hebrew word 'Torah' (תּוֹרָה) originally carries a comprehensive meaning of 'teaching,' 'instruction,' or 'guidance'.¹⁷ It’s a broader concept than 'law' in the strict sense. However, when translated into the Greek 'nomos' (νόμος) in the Septuagint, the meaning of 'law' was emphasized, greatly influencing Western translation traditions.¹⁹

Primarily, Torah refers to the Pentateuch, namely Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Traditionally believed to be received by Moses from God on Mount Sinai and recorded ¹⁹, modern biblical scholarship suggests it was formed through various sources and editorial processes.²⁴

In a broader sense, Jewish tradition sometimes uses Torah to refer to the entire Hebrew Bible (Tanakh, the Christian Old Testament) ¹⁹, and occasionally extends the concept to include the Oral Torah, such as the Talmud or Midrash.¹⁹ Christianity typically uses the term 'law' to refer to the Pentateuch or the legal aspects of the Old Testament as a whole, differing from Jewish usage.²⁶ From the NPP perspective, it’s noteworthy that when Paul mentions 'the law,' while sometimes meaning the entire law, he often refers specifically to certain regulations that define Jewish identity and distinguish Jews from Gentiles (such as circumcision, food laws, Sabbath observance).²

In the Bible, 'Gentile' (Hebrew: goyim, Greek: ethne) fundamentally means all peoples or nations that are not Jewish. The Old Testament generally presents a perspective distinguishing Israel, in a covenant relationship with God, from other nations.²⁹ The NPP emphasizes that a core background issue in Pauline theology was precisely the relationship between Jews and Gentiles, specifically, how Gentiles could become God’s people equally with Jews.²

This report will first examine the nature of the law and regulations concerning Gentiles within the Old Testament context. It will then analyze Jesus' teachings on the law and his attitude towards Gentiles, followed by a consideration of how the early church addressed this issue, focusing on the Book of Acts. Next, it will delve deeply into the theology of law, grace, and justification found in Paul’s letters, particularly from the NPP perspective, in relation to Gentiles. Subsequently, it will compare and analyze how major theological frameworks (Covenant Theology, Dispensationalism, New Perspective on Paul) approach this issue, and finally, synthesize the entire content to present a conclusion.

The Old Testament law, or Torah, was given after God’s gracious act of redeeming the Israelites from slavery in Egypt.²³ It was not a condition for earning salvation but rather provided guidelines and a framework for how the already redeemed covenant community should live in relationship with God.²³ NPP scholars argue that first-century Judaism was not 'legalism' (attempting to earn salvation through works) but 'covenantal nomism'—maintaining one’s status within the covenant people through law observance, based on God’s gracious election and covenant.¹ That is, law observance was about staying in the covenant, not getting in.⁵³

The law served to distinguish Israel as a holy people from the surrounding nations' idolatry and immoral practices.⁴⁴ Practices like circumcision, dietary laws, and the Sabbath functioned as important 'boundary markers' signifying Jewish identity.² The law also revealed God’s holy and righteous character while simultaneously making humans aware of sin.²⁵

While later theologians have traditionally categorized Old Testament law into moral, ceremonial, and civil law, the NPP suggests this distinction might be distant from Paul’s own framework. Paul viewed the entire law as God’s revelation. When he critiqued specific regulations, it was often not because they were morally wrong, but because of their social function in separating Jews and Gentiles—their role as 'boundary markers'.² Therefore, focusing on the social and identity-forming function of the law might be more useful for understanding Paul than the traditional threefold division.

The Old Testament includes regulations concerning foreigners residing in the land of Israel, namely the 'ger' (sojourner, resident alien) and the 'nokri' (foreigner, alien).⁹⁰ These regulations reveal the complexity of applying the law to Gentiles.

A key principle was fair treatment and protection for the sojourner. Leviticus 19:33-34 commands loving the sojourner as oneself, reminding the Israelites of their own experience as sojourners in Egypt.⁴⁵ This demand was based on empathy for universal human vulnerability and God’s justice. Fairness in judgment ⁹⁰ and equal application of certain criminal laws (Lev 18:26, 20:2, 24:10-22; Num 35:15) ⁹⁰ applied equally to Israelites and sojourners. Leviticus 24:22 declares, "You shall have the same rule for the sojourner and for the native" ⁹⁰, suggesting the potential universal application of specific laws. Some religious regulations, like Sabbath observance (Ex 20:10), Day of Atonement rules (Lev 16:29), and the prohibition of eating blood (Lev 17:10-12), also applied to sojourners.⁹²

However, not all laws applied equally. Passover participation required circumcision.⁹⁹ Regulations concerning eating animals found dead (Lev 17:15; Deut 14:21) ⁶⁶, the Jubilee release of slaves (Lev 25:45-47) ⁹³, and the prohibition of appointing a foreigner as ruler (Deut 17:15) ⁹³ distinguished between Israelites and others. This shows the law also functioned to maintain Israel’s distinct identity. Social safety nets for poor sojourners, like leaving gleanings during harvest (Lev 19:9-10, 23:22; Deut 24:19-21) or including them in the distribution of the triennial tithe (Deut 14:29, 26:12), demonstrated care for the vulnerable within the community.⁹²

The fact that some laws (especially basic justice and morality) applied equally to sojourners in the Old Testament, and that the rationale given was the universal human condition (Israel’s past experience), suggests an awareness of universal moral principles transcending ethnic boundaries even in the Old Testament era.⁶⁶ This is confirmed in Leviticus 18, which mentions the sexual sins of the Canaanites causing the land to vomit them out, prohibiting these acts for both Israelites and the sojourners residing there.⁶⁶ This reflects a recognition that certain actions are universally right or wrong, regardless of covenant community status. This Old Testament perspective could be seen as a biblical root for the concepts of conscience and natural law discussed later by Paul in Romans 2:14-15.³⁸

Regarding the application of law to Gentiles, the concept of the 'Seven Laws of Noah,' developed in later Rabbinic Judaism, is relevant. This refers to seven universal moral laws believed to be binding on all humanity based on the covenant God made with Noah and his descendants.⁴¹

The traditionally enumerated seven laws are: ① Prohibition of idolatry, ② Prohibition of blasphemy, ③ Prohibition of murder, ④ Prohibition of theft, ⑤ Prohibition of sexual immorality (adultery, incest, etc.), ⑥ Prohibition of eating flesh torn from a living animal (prohibition of cruelty to animals), ⑦ Obligation to establish courts of justice (a legal system).⁴¹

This explicit list of seven laws does not appear in the Bible itself but was derived primarily in Rabbinic literature (like the Talmud) through interpretive commentary on Genesis 2:16 ("And the LORD God commanded the man, saying, 'You may surely eat of every tree of the garden'") and passages related to the Noahic covenant in Genesis 9.⁴¹ Thus, it is more a product of Rabbinic hermeneutics than directly based on Scripture.⁴¹

Within Jewish thought, the Seven Laws of Noah represent the minimum moral standard required of all humanity. Gentiles who observe these laws are considered 'righteous Gentiles,' and the possibility of salvation is seen as open to them.⁴¹ This is sometimes understood as a distinct covenant system for Gentiles, separate from the 613 commandments given to Jews.⁴¹

Although a product of Rabbinic Judaism, the concept of the Seven Laws of Noah is noteworthy as an attempt to establish universal moral laws. Some Jewish thinkers viewed these laws as derived from reason or natural law.⁴¹ This bears resemblance to the concept of natural law discussed in Christian theology or Paul’s mention of the law written on the hearts of Gentiles by conscience in Romans 2.⁴¹ The Seven Laws of Noah represent an effort within Jewish tradition to explain the moral responsibility and potential of Gentiles, serving as an example of religious reflection on universal morality.

Jesus clearly declared in the Sermon on the Mount, "Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them" (Matthew 5:17).⁴⁰ This makes it clear that Jesus did not come to negate or discard the authority of the Old Testament law. Rather, Jesus came to 'fulfill' (Greek: pleroo) the law. NPP understands this 'fulfillment' not merely as keeping the commandments, but as bringing to completion God’s ultimate plan of salvation pointed to by the law—the plan to save all nations, including Gentiles, through the Messiah.⁴⁰ Jesus, as the Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament, fulfilled the law’s prophecies, perfectly embodied its moral demands through his sinless life, and became the reality of the sacrifices pointed to by the ceremonial law through his death on the cross.⁵⁹

Furthermore, Jesus emphasized the permanence and divine authority of the law by saying, "For truly, I say to you, until heaven and earth pass away, not an iota, not a dot, will pass from the Law until all is accomplished" (Matthew 5:18).¹¹⁶ This affirmed the importance of the law as God’s revelation.¹¹⁴

Jesus emphasized the spirit and inner motivation behind the law, going beyond mere literal observance. In the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5:21-48), he deepened the commandment against murder to include anger in the heart, and the commandment against adultery to include lustful thoughts.⁶⁷ This shows that the law’s demands extend to the inner thoughts and will, possessing deep spiritual and moral dimensions.⁵⁸

Jesus identified the "greatest commandment" summarizing the entire law as 'loving the Lord your God with all your heart, soul, and mind' and 'loving your neighbor as yourself' (Matthew 22:34-40; Mark 12:28-34; Luke 10:25-28).⁵⁶ This clarified that the core of the law lies in the principles of love for God and neighbor.

Regarding Sabbath regulations ³² and purity laws ³⁸, which strongly marked Jewish identity ('boundary markers'), Jesus challenged the rigid interpretations of his time, emphasizing mercy and human need over formal observance. His declaration "all foods are clean" (Mark 7:19) ³⁸ and that he is "Lord of the Sabbath" (Mark 2:28) ⁸⁵ suggested that these regulations were not absolute conditions for salvation and laid the theological groundwork for Paul’s later opposition to imposing such laws on Gentiles. Jesus interpreted the law with unique authority ("You have heard it said…​ But I say to you," Matthew 5) ¹¹⁷, showing he was not merely an interpreter within the Mosaic system but the one who fulfills and completes the law, inaugurating the new covenant.⁴⁰

While Jesus' earthly ministry primarily focused on the "lost sheep of the house of Israel" (Matthew 15:24) ¹²² and he initially instructed disciples not to go to Gentile regions (Matthew 10:5) ¹⁴⁹, his ministry clearly shows positive attitudes towards Gentiles and hints at their potential for salvation. Praising the faith of the Roman centurion (Matthew 8:10; Luke 7:9) and the Canaanite (Syrophoenician) woman (Matthew 15:21-28; Mark 7:24-30) ¹⁴² demonstrated that Gentiles could participate in God’s grace through faith, irrespective of lineage or law observance.

Furthermore, Jesus prophesied that "many will come from east and west and recline at table with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven" (Matthew 8:11-12) ¹⁴⁹, declaring that Gentiles with faith, not just ethnic Israelites, would participate in God’s kingdom. The Great Commission given after his resurrection was a clearly universal mission command to make disciples of "all nations" (Matthew 28:19).¹⁴⁹ Although Jesus sometimes used Gentiles as negative examples (Matthew 5:47, 6:7) ¹⁴⁹, his ultimate outlook was positive regarding Gentile salvation. This prepared the way for Gentiles to become God’s people in a new way—through faith in Jesus, not adherence to Mosaic law—a key theme in Pauline theology as highlighted by the NPP.¹⁴⁹

The early church’s gospel proclamation expanded beyond Jerusalem to Samaritans (Acts 8) and, crucially, the conversion of the Roman centurion Cornelius through the Apostle Peter (Acts 10-11) opened the door for Gentile mission. The event where Cornelius and his household received the Holy Spirit before circumcision was clear evidence that God accepted Gentiles through faith, without the ceremonial requirements of Mosaic law, particularly the key Jewish 'boundary marker' of circumcision.¹⁵¹

Following Paul and Barnabas’s first missionary journey, as many Gentiles came to faith in Christ, particularly in the church at Antioch, a serious theological controversy arose within the church. Certain Jewish Christians from Judea (especially former Pharisees) insisted, "Unless you are circumcised according to the custom of Moses, you cannot be saved," demanding law observance and circumcision from Gentile believers as conditions for salvation.⁹⁸ NPP views this debate not just as a 'law versus grace' issue, but fundamentally as an ecclesiological question: 'Who belongs to the people of God?' and 'How can Jews and Gentiles form one community?'.¹⁵²

To resolve this, the apostles and elders gathered in Jerusalem for what is known as the Jerusalem Council. Key arguments presented were:

The council’s final decision was not to require Mosaic law (especially circumcision, a key Jewish 'boundary marker') from Gentile believers as a condition for salvation.⁹⁸ However, for the sake of fellowship and unity between Jewish and Gentile believers (especially regarding table fellowship), they recommended abstaining from four things: ① food polluted by idols, ② sexual immorality (porneia), ③ meat of strangled animals, and ④ blood.³⁸ NPP interprets these four requirements not as essential conditions for salvation, but as pastoral guidelines considering issues particularly sensitive to Jewish believers (association with idolatry, Levitical food laws, sexual ethics) to minimize conflict and maintain church unity.³⁸ Some scholars connect these prohibitions to rules applied to sojourners in Leviticus 17-18 ⁸³ or elements of the Noahide Laws.¹⁰⁶ Crucially, the council firmly established the principle of salvation by grace alone (Acts 15:11).¹⁵¹ The Jerusalem Council marked a vital turning point, officially validating the Gentile mission, reaffirming salvation by faith alone, and laying the theological and practical foundation for believers from diverse backgrounds to be united in Christ.³⁸

NPP argues that 'justification' (dikaiosis) in Paul is not primarily about how an individual gets forgiveness for sins (the traditional Protestant view). Rather, it is God’s declaration of who belongs to his covenant people, particularly addressing the question of how Gentiles are accepted as God’s people on equal footing with Jews—an ecclesiological issue.³⁹

When Paul states, "no one will be justified by the works of the law" (Romans 3:20; Galatians 2:16) ³⁸, NPP interprets 'works of the law' (erga nomou) not as general moral good deeds aimed at earning salvation, but primarily as the specific practices that marked Jewish ethnic identity and separated them from Gentiles: circumcision, dietary laws, and Sabbath observance ('boundary markers').⁸⁰ Paul’s point, therefore, is that membership in God’s people depends not on observing these ethnic markers, but solely on faith (pistis) in Jesus Christ. Faith now becomes the defining marker of God’s new covenant people, uniting both Jew and Gentile.⁴¹

While Paul affirms the law itself is good (Romans 7:12, 14) ⁵⁸, from an NPP perspective, a primary reason Paul points out the law’s limitations is not just its function in revealing and condemning sin ²⁵, but because the law (especially its boundary markers) was being misused as a barrier dividing Jew and Gentile. In Ephesians 2, Paul states that Christ’s cross abolished the "law of commandments expressed in ordinances," breaking down the "dividing wall of hostility" to create one new humanity out of Jews and Gentiles.³² This signifies that the law’s social function of separation was overcome in Christ. The law served as a temporary 'guardian' (paidagogos) leading to Christ (Galatians 3:23-25) ⁴⁰, and now that faith has come, believers are no longer under the law’s boundary markers.

The 'freedom from the law' that believers enjoy in Christ (Romans 6:14; 7:4; Galatians 2:19) ⁶⁰ is understood by NPP primarily as freedom from the obligation to observe the Jewish 'boundary markers' that enforced ethnic identity. This is not freedom to sin (moral license) ⁵⁹, but freedom for a new way of life in the Spirit, where Jews and Gentiles are united and serve one another in love ("the law of Christ," Galatians 6:2; 1 Corinthians 9:21).⁵⁵

NPP finds the reason for Paul’s strong opposition to imposing Jewish 'boundary markers' like circumcision or food laws on Gentile converts precisely in this ecclesiological problem.³⁸ Galatians is Paul’s fierce rebuttal of this 'different gospel'—one that makes ethnic markers a condition for salvation. For Paul, in Christ, there is no distinction between Jew and Gentile (Galatians 3:28) ⁵⁶; the cross demolished the 'wall' of the law, creating one new humanity (Ephesians 2:11-22).³²

However, Paul still strongly emphasizes moral living. He condemns sinful behaviors like idolatry, sexual immorality, and greed in various letters, urging a holy life.³⁸ These exhortations often align with the moral teachings of the Old Testament law, including the Ten Commandments. NPP interprets Paul as believing that the moral core of the law is not abolished but fulfilled through the principle of love by the Spirit in Christ (Romans 13:8-10; Galatians 5:14).⁵⁵ The crucial difference is that this moral life is no longer achieved by external adherence to national boundary markers but through the indwelling power and guidance of the Spirit available to all believers.

Covenant Theology views God’s redemptive plan as unfolding coherently through a series of covenants (primarily the Covenant of Works and the Covenant of Grace).¹⁹⁴ Covenants like the Abrahamic, Mosaic, and New Covenants are seen as different administrations of the single, overarching Covenant of Grace.¹⁹⁷ The Mosaic Law is understood as one administration of the Covenant of Grace, given to the specific community of Israel. Covenant Theology generally accepts the threefold division of the law (moral, ceremonial, civil). The moral law (Ten Commandments) reflects God’s unchanging will and remains valid for believers of all ages. The ceremonial law is fulfilled in Christ, and the civil law, tied to the ancient Israelite theocracy, is no longer literally binding.⁸⁷ Thus, Gentile believers participate in the Covenant of Grace through faith, are not obligated to keep the ceremonial or civil laws, but should obey the principles of the moral law as guided by the Spirit.¹⁹⁷

Dispensationalism divides biblical history into distinct 'dispensations' or eras where God deals with humanity differently.²⁸ Typically, seven dispensations are identified. A key feature is the clear distinction between Israel and the Church as two separate groups in God’s plan.²² The Mosaic Law is seen as the specific code for Israel during the 'Dispensation of Law'.²⁰¹ The current era is the 'Dispensation of Grace' or 'Church Age,' and believers in this age (both Jew and Gentile) are not under the Mosaic Law.²⁰¹ While salvation is always by grace through faith, the specific responsibilities (stewardship) required by God differ in each dispensation. Therefore, Gentile believers are not bound by any part of the Mosaic Law. Their moral obligations stem from the teachings of the New Covenant, conscience, or universal moral principles, entirely separate from the Mosaic Law.²⁰¹ (Variations like Mid-Acts dispensationalism exist ²¹⁰).

The 'New Perspective on Paul,' emerging from the late 1970s with scholars like E. P. Sanders, James Dunn, and N. T. Wright, challenges traditional Protestant (especially Lutheran) interpretations of Paul, particularly regarding first-century Judaism.¹ NPP argues that first-century Judaism was not 'legalism' (earning salvation by works) but 'covenantal nomism'—maintaining covenant status through law observance based on God’s gracious election.¹ Based on this understanding, NPP interprets Paul’s critique of 'works of the law' (erga nomou) as referring primarily not to general moral deeds, but to 'boundary markers' like circumcision, food laws, and Sabbath observance that signified Jewish ethnic identity and excluded Gentiles.¹⁹ Consequently, Paul’s doctrine of 'justification by faith' is seen as relating more closely to the ecclesiological question of who belongs to God’s covenant people—how Jews and Gentiles become one people in Christ—rather than solely to the individual’s problem of guilt and salvation.¹⁹ Justification, in this view, is the declaration, based on faith, that someone (Jew or Gentile) is part of God’s covenant people, irrespective of adherence to Jewish boundary markers. NPP often includes a concept of future justification based on works produced by the Spirit.⁴⁴

Based on the analysis informed by NPP, the initial perspectives can be re-evaluated:

From the NPP viewpoint, the biblical analysis of applying the law to Gentiles highlights these core principles:

Even within NPP, variations in interpretation exist (e.g., the precise meaning of justification, the role of future justification), and dialogue with traditional interpretations continues. The contemporary meaning of specific laws (like the Sabbath) also remains a topic of active discussion.⁵⁵

From the NPP perspective, the issue of applying the law to Gentiles transcends a simple 'keep/don’t keep' dichotomy regarding individual commandments. The core issue is how Jews and Gentiles are integrated into one people of God through faith in Jesus Christ. Paul saw the imposition of the law’s 'boundary markers' as distorting the gospel and harming church unity. Gentile believers do not need to enter the Jewish legal system; they become God’s people directly through faith in Christ.

However, this does not imply moral indifference. The law’s fundamental spirit—love for God and neighbor—is required of all believers as the 'law of Christ,' lived out in the Spirit. The crucial shift is that this moral life is no longer tied to ethnic identity or external rule-keeping but flows spontaneously from the Spirit’s inner power and the motivation of love. Therefore, while Gentile believers are not under the literal stipulations of the Mosaic Law, they possess the responsibility and privilege, in Christ and by the Spirit, to practice love and live holy lives as God’s unified people.